Flu season is under way, and, along with it, lots of confusion and unreliable information. Maybe you’re not sure you want to get vaccinated this year. Let’s separate these 7 common flu shot facts from fiction.

 It is not possible to get the flu from the influenza vaccine. 

Most people don’t have any adverse effects (AEs) from the influenza vaccine, and when AEs do occur, they are usually very mild. Although soreness, redness, tenderness, or swelling is common where the flu shot is given, the flu shot cannot cause you to get the flu. This is because influenza vaccines are made with viruses that are inactivated or attenuated (weakened); recombinant flu vaccines have no virus at all.

Some vaccine reactions have been reported after the nasal spray vaccine is given; these AEs include runny nose, nasal congestion, cough, chills, tiredness/weakness, sore throat, and headache. Although these AEs sound similar to flu symptoms, they are mild and short-lasting.

When individuals report getting the flu after getting vaccinated, it’s likely that they were already sick or were exposed to the flu virus during the 2-week period it takes for immunity to set in. Another explanation is that some rhinoviruses, which are associated with the common cold, cause symptoms similar to the flu and can be mistaken for the flu.

 It’s okay to skip the flu shot if you’ve gotten vaccinated in previous years.

Unlike the polio and chickenpox vaccines, protection from flu vaccination declines over time, so an annual vaccination is needed to get the “optimal” or best protection against the flu. Although you may have some protection if you got the flu vaccine last year, there is no way to know how much.

The flu vaccine protects against several strains of flu that scientists predict will be the dominant strains most likely to circulate this year. Trivalent vaccines protect against 3 strains of the flu, for instance, while quadrivalent vaccines protect against 4 strains. However, these dominant strains mutate, or change, from year to year.

Therefore, the viruses that you were immunized against last year are now different. A new flu shot will give you protection against the types of flu that are likely to cause an outbreak this year. The CDC is not recommending the nasal spray vaccine for use during the 2016-2017 season because of concerns about its effectiveness.

 It’s not too late to get a flu vaccine until flu season is over. 

The CDC recommends that flu vaccinations begin soon after vaccine becomes available, if possible by October. However, as long as flu viruses are circulating, vaccinations can still be beneficial, even in January or later because flu activity can begin as early as September and continue as late as May. That means you have plenty of opportunity to come into contact with flu viruses—and you want to make sure that you’re protected against them.

 Pregnant women should not get the flu shot.

 Pregnant women should get the flu vaccine. 

Because the body undergoes changes to the immune system, heart, and lungs during pregnancy, pregnant women, and individuals who recently gave birth, are more likely to experience severe illness, hospitalization, and even death from the flu.

Vaccination during pregnancy provides protection to the mother and her unborn child. Influenza antibodies are passed to the fetus during pregnancy and provide protection after birth, at a time when the child is too young to be vaccinated.

Any woman who is pregnant or considering pregnancy during the flu season should be vaccinated. The CDC recommends that pregnant women get a flu shot during any trimester of their pregnancy to protect themselves, their unborn babies, and their newborn babies from the flu. The nasal spray vaccine is not recommended for use in pregnant women.

 People who are allergic to eggs should not get the flu shot.

 People with egg allergies can get the flu vaccine.

The CDC recommendations for people with egg allergies have been updated for the 2016-2017 season. Individuals who have experienced hives but no other symptoms after exposure to egg can get any licensed flu vaccine that is appropriate for their age and health. For individuals who have experienced angioedema (swelling just below the surface of the skin, most often around the lips and eyes), respiratory distress, lightheadedness, or repeated vomiting, or who have needed epinephrine or another emergency medical intervention following egg exposure, the CDC also recommends any licensed flu vaccine that is appropriate for their age and health. However, the vaccine should be given in a medical setting and be supervised by a health care provider who is able to recognize and manage severe allergic conditions.

People who should talk to their health care providers before getting the influenza vaccine include those with Guillain-Barré syndrome (a severe paralyzing illness also called GBS) and those with severe, life-threatening allergies to flu vaccine or any ingredient in the vaccine. This might include gelatin, antibiotics, or other ingredients.

 If you’re young and healthy, you don’t need a flu shot.

 The CDC recommends the influenza vaccine for everyone older than 6 months. 

The flu is a serious viral illness that can make anyone sick, even otherwise healthy people.

Individuals who are most vulnerable to the flu are children younger than 2 years, individuals older than 65 years, pregnant women, and individuals with conditions such as chronic lung disease, heart disease, and neurologic and developmental conditions, according to the CDC.

If you fall outside those groups, you’re less likely to have flu-related complications that could send you to the hospital. But you can still get the flu, and it is a tough illness that can cause fever, cough, sore throat, runny or stuffy nose, body aches, headache, chills, and fatigue. Some individuals, especially children, may also have vomiting and diarrhea. These symptoms typically last 2 to 3 days and may even affect you for a week or more.

Only children younger than 6 months and those with severe, life-threatening allergies to flu vaccine should not get the flu vaccine. People with a history of Guillain-Barré syndrome should discuss flu vaccination with their physicians.

 I got the flu shot, and now it is impossible for me to get the flu.

The flu vaccine reduces your risk of getting the flu.

The flu vaccine is the best way to protect yourself and others around you from getting the flu. In addition to getting vaccinated, you can take everyday preventive steps such as staying away from sick people and washing your hands to reduce the spread of germs. The flu vaccine only reduces your risk; it cannot guarantee you won’t get the flu. If you do get the flu despite getting the vaccine, your illness is generally much milder. If you are sick with the flu, stay home from work or school to prevent spreading it to others.

Frequently asked flu questions 2016-2017 influenza season. CDC website. cdc.gov/flu/about/season/flu-season-2016-2017.htm. Accessed September 9, 2016. Worried about the flu shot? let’s separate fact from fiction. NPR website. npr.org/sections/health-shots/2015/11/24/457103549/worried- about-the-flu-shot-lets-separate-fact-from-fiction?utm_content= buffer09a53&utm_medium=social&utm_source=facebook. com&utm_campaign=buffer. Published November 24, 2015. Accessed September 9, 2016. Beth is a freelance health and science writer based in Northern California. She’s on Twitter: @beth_bolt.

Articles

Flu season is under way, and, along with it, lots of confusion and unreliable information.

Flu Vaccine Facts

Insulin is a naturally occurring hormone produced by the pancreas. Insulin is required to move sugar from the blood into the body’s cells, where it can be used for energy. For the symptoms of high blood sugar and low blood sugar, see Tables 1 and 2.

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a chronic condition in which the pancreas produces little or no insulin. Only 5% of patients with diabetes have this form of the disease, according to the American Diabetes Association.

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is much more common; the risk factors are listed in online table 3. Individuals with T2D make insulin, but their bodies don’t respond well to it, a condition known as insulin resistance. Treatment of T2D usually begins with dietary and lifestyle changes, as well as oral medications. Over time, as the pancreas struggles to make an adequate amount of insulin to overcome insulin resistance, patients may require insulin supplementation.

Insulin therapy must be individualized and balanced with meal planning and exercise. When a patient begins using insulin to manage diabetes, the initial dose is just a starting point. Over time, insulin requirements are affected by factors such as weight gain or loss, changes in eating habits, and the addition of other medications. The need for insulin often increases, and the dose must be readjusted to meet the new requirements.

Insulin is injected subcutaneously, meaning not very deep under the skin. Common injection sites include the stomach, buttocks, thighs, and upper arms. By rotating the site of injection, patients can avoid lipohypertrophy, a slight increase in the growth or size of fat cells under the skin. When lipohypertrophy occurs, a soft pillowy growth may form at the repeated-use injection site. Therefore, for reliable absorption rates and cosmetic purposes, it’s important to rotate insulin injection sites.

Insulin types vary depending on how quickly they work, when they peak, and how long they last. As sliding-scale insulin therapy has fallen out of favor, many experts recommend using basal insulin with mealtime insulin added when needed. Basal insulin is intended to keep blood glucose levels under control during periods of fasting or sleep.

The 2 main types of basal insulin are intermediate- acting insulin and long-acting insulin. To mimic the way the body of a patient without diabetes releases insulin, bolus insulin (short-acting or rapid-acting insulin) must be administered to prevent an increase in the blood glucose level after meals.

 (Humulin R; Novolin R; and, for insulin pump, Velosulin):

Neutral protamine Hagedorn (NPH) insulin must be resuspended (gently mixed by rolling) before use

If injected at bedtime, it will likely peak at predawn hours when needed most

 (detemir [Levemir] and glargine [Lantus]):

Premixed insulins combine specific amounts of intermediate-acting and short-acting insulin in 1 bottle or insulin pen. These products, which include Humulin 70/30, Novolin 70/30, Novolog 70/30, Humulin 50/50, and Humalog Mix 75/25, are generally taken 2 or 3 times a day before mealtime.

Insulin is available in several strengths, although most insulin sold in the United States is U100, meaning there are 100 units of insulin in every milliliter of liquid. A 10-mL bottle of U100 insulin contains 1000 units of insulin. There are 3 sizes of U100 insulin syringes: 1/3 cc, 1/2 cc, and 1 cc. A 1/3-cc syringe holds 30 units of insulin, 1/2 cc holds 50 units, and 1 cc holds 100 units. The type of syringe used depends on how much insulin is required.

Several new insulins with concentrations greater than U100 have recently come to the market. These products were developed for individuals requiring large doses of insulin in order to reduce the volume injected and the number of injections. Toujeo (insulin glargine [rDNA origin]), a once-daily, long-acting basal insulin, contains 300 units/mL (U300). For patients with severe insulin resistance in need of more than 200 units/day, superconcentrated U500 insulin is available.

A variety of insulin delivery systems exist, including syringes, insulin pens (disposable and reusable), needle-free jet injectors using very high pressure to push a fine spray of insulin through the skin, and inhaled insulin. Insulin pumps deliver the insulin the body needs 24 hours a day through a catheter placed under the skin. Although these devices have been used to treat T1D for about 35 years, their use has become widespread in only the past 15 years.

All NPH insulin, as well as lente and ultralente (all cloudy insulins), need to be mixed to ensure uniform suspension of the insulin within the liquid. To ensure its effectiveness and to decrease blood glucose fluctuations, be sure to properly mix your insulin by turning the bottle over from end to end a few times, or by rolling the bottle gently between the palms of the hands.

Insulin therapy must be individualized and balanced with meal planning and exercise.

The ABCs of Insulin

Sleep is one of those things that should come naturally. And for many of us, it does. For some individuals, however, getting a good night’s sleep can be a struggle that leads to drowsiness, an inability to focus, and low energy during the day. Over a long period of time, lack of sleep may lead to an increased risk of depression and heart trouble. You may have trouble falling asleep and/or sleeping through the night, wake up earlier than desired, or feel tired upon awakening. These symptoms may be classified by their duration: transient (less than 1 week), short term (1-3 weeks), or chronic (more than 3 weeks). If you have chronic insomnia with daily symptoms and you are waking several times each night, or if your insomnia is caused by other medical conditions, see your health care provider (HCP) for treatment. See Table 1 for medical conditions that cause insomnia. If your insomnia can be classified as short term, several changes in lifestyle may be helpful.

The first step is to get in sync with your body’s natural sleep-wake cycle by following these practices:

		Set and stick to a bedtime schedule. Go to bed at about the same time every night and wake up at the same time every day to set your body’s internal clock. This includes weekends and holidays.

		Avoid late-day naps. Late afternoon naps can make falling asleep or staying asleep at night more difficult. If you do take naps, avoid napping after 3 pm and limit them to 15 to 20 minutes.

		Don’t sleep in on weekends. If your weekend and weekday sleep schedules differ, you may find your natural sleep-wake cycle is easily disturbed.

Melatonin, the naturally occurring hormone that makes you feel sleepy at night, is controlled by daylight, darkness, and the amount of light your eyes are exposed to. Melatonin levels are lowest during the day because your eyes detect large amounts of light through specialized cells of the retina. During the nighttime hours, melatonin levels peak, inducing physiological changes that promote sleep, such as decreased body temperature and respiration rate. In addition to sunlight, artificial lighting can be bright enough to prevent the release of melatonin, which can interfere with the sleep-wake cycle.

Here are some simple tips for optimizing the sleep-wake cycle:

		Spend more daytime hours outside or in lightfilled rooms. Exposure to sunlight during the day will help you fall asleep later on when it’s time for bed because light inhibition of melatonin production stimulates wakefulness and alertness throughout the day. Get outside early in the morning or have your breakfast near a sunny window. During the day, exercise outside or take your dog for a walk and open curtains and blinds in your house and workplace to expose yourself to plenty of light.

		Make your bedroom dark for better sleep. Block all sources of artificial light, including street lamps or outside house lights with heavy curtains or blinds, and cover up the glow from light-emitting electronics and bright alarm clocks.

Consider these other factors that affect sleep:

		Limit caffeine, tea, and nicotine before bedtime. In addition, avoid drinking large amounts of liquids in the evening because it may cause you to have to get up several times during the night to use the restroom. Although alcohol may make you feel tired at first, it may actually compromise the quality of your sleep and should be avoided, especially if you have been having trouble getting a good night’s sleep.

		Create a comfortable sleeping environment and pay attention to the temperature, noise and light in your room, as the bedroom environment can have a significant influence on sleep quality and quantity. This may mean reducing the temperature, turning off the TV, and avoiding computers, iPads, TVs, or work in the bedroom. The bedroom should be reserved for sleep.

		Get ready for bed with a regular routine. Engage in relaxing activities in the hours just before bed, such as light reading and listening to soothing music.

		Make sure your bed is comfortable and use it only for sleep. Avoid watching TV or working in bed.

		Exercise regularly. If timed right, exercise helps promote restful sleep. Engage in strenuous exercise (jogging, swimming, brisk walking, etc.) during the day, especially the day after a bad night’s sleep. However, you need to pay attention to what time you exercise. If you exercise too late in the day, you may have difficulty falling asleep. Try to finish exercising at least 3 hours before bed; however, a gentle stretching routine before bed can also help you to relax and induce sleep.

		Avoid heavy meals within 2 to 4 hours of bedtime. If your body is working to digest a large meal, your sleep may be disturbed— although a little food in your stomach may help you sleep. If you must eat before bed, try to limit your meal to a light snack and avoid protein-rich, high-fat foods near bedtime. See Table 2 for a list of foods to avoid for a good night’s sleep.

		If possible, avoid medications that disrupt sleep. Certain commonly used prescription and OTC medicines contain ingredients that can make it difficult to fall asleep, cause more awakenings during the night, and affect the quality of your sleep. These ingredients include decongestants, steroids, and caffeine in headache medicines. Antihistamines and prescription medications including betablockers, alpha-blockers, asthma treatments, and antidepressants can also affect sleep. If you have trouble sleeping, talk to your pharmacist to see whether any drugs you’re taking might be disrupting your sleep and whether they can be taken at other times in the day. Don’t stop taking prescription drugs or adjust your dosing schedule without talking to your pharmacist or HCP first.

If you’re still having trouble sleeping, you may be tempted to reach for a supplement or an OTC sleep aid. So when is it time to try a sleep aid? The answer is different for every individual because sleep problems are caused by a variety of different factors. For example, certain medications, night-shift work, and jet lag can throw off the sleep-wake cycle. A sleep medication may be an option when improving your sleep habits hasn’t worked, the cause of your sleep problem is known and is best treated with medication, or sleep troubles are making daily activities difficult to perform and the insomnia is expected to be temporary. Although sleep aids can help you fall asleep on occasional sleepless nights, it is best to talk to your HCP or pharmacist about taking any sleep aids or supplements like melatonin or valerian root extract. Supplements, because they are not recognized as drugs, are not regulated by the FDA, so it can be hard to pinpoint the exact melatonin or valerian root extract dosage that works best.

It is normal to have an occasional sleepless night, but if you find yourself having trouble falling sleep or staying asleep on a regular basis, speak to your HCP and don’t get discouraged. Together you can create a plan to help you get the rest you need.

						Smith M, Robinson L, Segal R. How to sleep better. Helpguide .org website. helpguide.org/articles/sleep/how-to-sleep-better. htm. Accessed July 28, 2016.

						Brain basics: understanding sleep. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke website. ninds.nih.gov/disorders/ brain_basics/understanding_sleep.htm#Tips. Updated July 25, 2014. Accessed July 28, 2016.

						Insomnia. National Sleep Foundation website. sleepfoundation .org/insomnia/content/what-is-insomnia. Accessed July 28, 2016.

						Sleep and chronic disease. CDC website. cdc.gov/sleep/about_ sleep/chronic_disease.html. Updated July 1, 2013. Accessed July 29, 2016.

						Insomnia fact sheet. Office on Women’s Health website. womenshealth. gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/insomnia. html. Updated July 16, 2012. Accessed July 29, 2016.

Beth is a clinical pharmacist and medical editor residing in northern California.

How to Get a Better Night's Sleep

, meaning vertebra, ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a complex, painful condition that can affect many parts of your body. However, AS most often causes pain and stiffness of the lower back because it attacks the sacroiliac joints between the spine and the pelvis. Over time, AS can damage the spine and lead to the growth of new bone. This causes the spine to stiffen and can result in a hunched-forward posture. Other parts of the body, such as the ankles, heels, ribs, hips, shoulders, and hands, can be affected. In rare instances, the eyes can be affected. Even the lungs and heart can become involved in AS.

Unlike other forms of arthritis, such as osteoarthritis, which is a wear-and-tear degenerative disease that is more common among women and older adults, AS generally develops earlier in life. AS usually develops in men younger than 40 years; however, but it can also affect women, children, and older adults. 

The symptoms of AS can vary from person to person, but usually develop gradually over several months or years. At first, patients may not notice the signs of AS. In fact, AS often goes undiagnosed because symptoms can come and go. But over time, they can get worse. The earliest symptoms of the disease may include pain and stiffness in the lower back and hips, especially in the morning and after long periods of not moving. The Table lists the parts of the body most commonly affected by AS.

For most individuals, AS comes in painful episodes, or flares, followed by temporary periods in which symptoms subside. Over the course of the disease, symptoms can get better, get worse, or stop at irregular intervals. The pain often improves when patients are active and exercising.

In some cases, inflammation due to AS can make joints fuse together. This happens when ligaments turn into bone, causing the spinal bones to join. This fusing can affect the flexibility of the spine, giving some patients the hunched-forward posture previously mentioned.

AS can also lead to iritis or uveitis, conditions in which the eye becomes inflamed. About one-third of patients with AS experience iritis or uveitis at least once. Eye inflammation causes painful, red, watery eyes; blurred vision; and sensitivity to light. See your health care provider (HCP) right away if you develop these symptoms. In rare cases, patients with AS may experience bowel inflammation, which is related to Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis.

The cause of AS is unknown, but it is likely that genes and environmental factors play a role. AS tends to run in families, and the main gene associated with susceptibility to AS is

. Individuals are at an increased risk of AS if they:

		Have frequent gastrointestinal infections

Your HCP may suspect you have AS, but the diagnosis is often made by a rheumatologist, an expert in arthritis and rheumatic diseases. Diagnosis generally involves a thorough physical exam, which includes x-rays, a medical history, a look at family history of AS, and blood tests. In the physical exam, the rheumatologist looks for key signs of AS, which include the following:

		Onset of disease usually before 35 years of age

		Chronic pain, or pain that lasts for more than 3 months

		Back pain and stiffness that worsens and leads to immobility, especially at night and in the early morning

		Back pain and stiffness that improves with physical activity and exercise

		Improved pain after taking nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)

Your rheumatologist will be looking for pain and inflammation in areas of the body associated with AS, including the back, pelvic bones, sacroiliac joints, chest, and heels. Imaging tests may be used to look for changes in your joints and bones. These tests include x-rays, computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

Blood tests may also be used in the diagnosis process. Although no blood test can spot AS, some blood tests can look for signs of inflammation. However, inflammation can be caused by a variety of health problems. Blood tests can also show if you have the

 gene, indicating whether you have a higher risk of developing the disease.

Although there is no cure for AS, treatment can be effective in reducing pain and stiffness, and may stop or delay complications and spinal deformity. Treatment generally involves a combination of exercise, drug treatment, and physical therapy. If you have severe pain or joint damage, your HCP may recommend surgery.

NSAIDs reduce inflammation, relieve pain and stiffness, and are the most commonly prescribed drugs for treating AS. NSAIDs used in the treatment of AS include the following:

When NSAIDs do not work, corticosteroids, such as prednisone, methylprednisolone, and cortisone, may be used. These drugs are injected directly into the affected joints to bring quick but temporary relief. Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), such as sulfasalazine and methotrexate, also work to reduce inflammation due to AS.

If none of the above medications work, tumor necrosis factor (TNF) inhibitors are sometimes prescribed. These drugs block a cell protein called TNF, which promotes inflammation in rheumatic diseases such as AS. Blocking this protein can help relieve pain and stiffness while reducing tender or swollen joints. TNF inhibitors are injected into the skin.

TNF inhibitors used to treat AS include the following:

As with most medications, the drugs come with some adverse effects. NSAIDs can cause gastrointestinal bleeding. TNF inhibitors can reactivate latent tuberculosis (a type of lung infection) and may lead to certain neurologic problems. Patients should be aware of these potential problems and notify their rheumatologist if they experience them.

Certain breathing exercises preserve and improve lung capacity. If AS has progressed and is causing the hunched-forward position, a physical therapist may recommend a variety of exercises to maintain good posture. Abdominal and back exercises, as well as sleeping and walking correctly, can help patients to remain stay upright.

Some patients require surgery to treat severe pain and joint damage. Knee surgery and hip replacement surgery are sometimes required when joints become severely damaged. Surgical correction may also be required for severe deformities of the spine.

AS is a chronic disease, meaning that it can last a lifetime. In the beginning, patients may have only mild symptoms they feel they can handle. This may be true, but it is still very important for them to see a rheumatologist at least once a year. An arthritis expert can help keep symptoms under control and spot underlying problems that may arise as a result of AS.

Beth is a clinical pharmacist and medical editor residing in Northern California.

		Ankylosing spondylitis. National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases website. niams.nih.gov/health_info/ankylosing_spondylitis/ankylosing_ spondylitis_ff.asp. Published November 2014. Accessed June 13, 2016.

		Reveille JD. Spondyloarthritis. American College of Rheumatology website. rheumatology. org/I-Am-A/Patient-Caregiver/Diseases-Conditions/Spondyloarthritis. Updated November 2013. Accessed June 13, 2016.

		Mayo Clinic staff. Ankylosing spondylitis. Mayo Clinic website. mayoclinic.org/ diseases-conditions/ankylosing-spondylitis/basics/definition/con-20019766. Published February 11, 2014. Accessed June 13, 2016.

Ankylosing spondylitis is a complex, painful condition that can affect many parts of your body. 

Understanding Ankylosing Spondylitis

Microorganisms, or microbes, for short, are everywhere: in the soil, in the water, and even on and in our bodies. Modern hygiene standards have taught us that microbes do bad things. So we arm ourselves with soaps, sprays, and wipes to try to rid germs from our bodies and our homes. When you hear the word bacteria, you probably associate it with being sick. And since the discovery of penicillin in the 1920s, antibiotics designed to kill harmful bacteria, or pathogens, have saved countless lives. Although some bacteria are harmful, and killing those pathogens is a good thing when you’re sick, most bacteria are good. In fact, bacteria play a vital role in supporting nature and life.

A lot has been learned in recent years about the microbiome—the trillions of probiotic bacteria that live inside and on our bodies. However, microbiome research is still in the very early stages. These microbes help our bodies digest and absorb nutrients, manufacture certain vitamins, protect against foodborne pathogens, and rally against intruders, such as influenza and toxic cancer-forming carcinogens. As we are learning, this vast number of microbes, collectively referred to as the human microbiota, have far-reaching effects on our bodies, including genetic control&mdash;by stimulating or blocking the expression of certain genes. In fact, recent research has shown that there may even be a link between gut microbiota and obesity, as studies in mice have shown certain microbes can affect behavior and food absorption.

Age, health status, hygiene, and diet can influence your microbe balance. Certain drug therapies, such as antibiotics and colonics, or serious diarrhea, can kill these helpful microbes that inhabit our bodies. When this happens, you want to replenish those beneficial microbes as quickly as possible to protect your health.

Probiotics are foods or supplements that contain live microorganisms that you introduce into your gut in order to obtain some health benefit. Probiotics are said to improve digestive and immune health. They are also touted as potential treatments for conditions such as obesity, dental problems, and diabetes. But, although the evidence is mounting for some possible health benefits, there is still much we don’t know about whether and how the probiotic products now on the shelves can improve health. Most probiotics contain bacteria from the Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium groups. Within these groups are many different species, and each species has many strains. Other bacteria may also be used as probiotics, and so may yeasts such as Saccharomyces boulardii.

There is a lot we still don’t know about probiotic use: what types of bacteria are best, what is the ideal dosage, what is the optimal length of therapy, and which groups of people will benefit most? Research has shown that taking probiotics may help prevent antibiotic-associated diarrhea and traveler’s diarrhea. They may also shorten the duration of stomach flu symptoms such as diarrhea and other digestive symptoms, but only by about 1 day. Probiotic supplements might also help treat irritable bowel syndrome, and may be useful when used in addition to standard therapy for treating Clostridium difficile (C diff)—associated diarrhea, ulcerative colitis, or bacterial vaginosis.

Most probiotics are sold as dietary supplements or foods, and the FDA doesn’t regulate supplements in the same way it does drugs. For this reason, consumers can’t be sure probiotic supplements contain what’s on the label in terms of the type and number of bacterial cells. Before you start taking or eating probiotics, it is a good idea to discuss them with your health care provider or pharmacist, as probiotics are likely safe for healthy people, but they may cause problems in people who are very ill or who have compromised immune systems. If you decide to take a probiotic supplement that contains bacteria, it is important that you wait at least 2 hours after taking an antibiotic. After taking an oral antifungal medication, wait 2 hours before taking a probiotic that contains yeast.

Prebiotics are foods high in soluble fiber—a nutrient we can’t digest that promotes the growth of helpful bacteria in the gut. Eating foods high in soluble fiber keeps our probiotic bacteria healthy. Think of prebiotics as a healthy meal for the helpful bacteria in your gut. Foods rich in prebiotics include asparagus, Jerusalem artichokes, chicory root, garlic, onions, leeks, bananas, oatmeal, and legumes. And smaller amounts of soluble fiber are found in a wide range of foods, including fruits, vegetables, whole grains, bran, honey, and soybeans. Generally speaking, as long as you’re eating a varied diet that includes fruits, vegetables, legumes, and whole grains, you are probably getting enough prebiotics or soluble fiber to keep your “good bacteria” healthy.

It may be possible to nourish the beneficial bacteria inside us by modifying our diets. We know that dietary fiber serves as food for many of the bacteria that live in our gut and that when bacteria are starved of food, they eat the mucus lining of our large intestines. On the other hand, when the bacteria are well fed, they give off nutrients that nourish the cells that line the intestines. Grains, legumes, fruits, vegetables, and other fiber-rich foods feed the hungry, beneficial bacteria and offer them a fighting chance to crowd out the harmful bacteria. Another way to build a better microbiome may be to eat foods that are naturally full of probiotics, rather than foods that aren’t naturally fermented or cultured. Although natural, probiotic foods may not be as convenient to eat as probiotic supplements, the extra nutrition that foods can offer are a plus. The most natural way to deliver beneficial bacteria to the digestive system is to eat fermented foods such as yogurt, sauerkraut, kombucha, kefir, and kimchi (Sidebar). Other probiotic foods include tempeh, miso soup, some aged cheeses, sourdoughs, and pickled fermentations of turnips, eggplant, cucumbers, onions, squash, and carrots.

Make sure to read product labels and do your research. Choose reputable commercial brands whether you are purchasing probiotic foods or supplements. Not all foods and supplements are created equal, and you don’t want to waste money on products that aren’t actually helping you.

		Foods to restore your intestinal flora. 

 website. scientificamerican.com/article/foods-to-restore-your-intestinal-flora/. Accessed May 19, 2016.

		Probiotics: in depth. National Institutes of Health website. nccih.nih.gov/health/probiotics/introduction.htm. Accessed May 19, 2016.

		Fiber supplementation influences phylogenetic structure and functional capacity of the human intestinal microbiome: follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. 

Nutrition website. /ajcn.nutrition.org/content/early/2014/11/12/ajcn.114.092064.abstract. Accessed May 20, 2016.

		Metabolites produced by commensal bacteria promote peripheral regulatory T-cell generation. Nature website. nature.com/nature/journal/v504/n7480/full/nature12726.html. Accessed May 20, 2016.

		4 habits for a healthy gut. CNN website. cnn.com/2014/06/18/health/good-gut-bacteria/. Accessed May 20, 2016.

		Johansson ME, Gustafsson J K, Holmen-Larsson J, et al. Bacteria penetrate the normally impenetrable inner colon mucus layer in both murine colitis models and patients with ulcerative colitis. 

. 2014;63(2) 281-291. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2012-303207.

		My microbiome and me. Science website. science.sciencemag.org/content/336/6086/1248.summary. Accessed May 21, 2016.

		Ursell LK, Metcalf JL, Parfrey LW, Knight R. Defining the human microbiome. 

. 2012;70(suppl 1):S38-S44. doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2012.00493.x.

		Hempel S, Newberry SJ, Maher AR, et al. Probiotics for the prevention and treatment of antibiotic-associated diarrhea: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 

2012;307(18):1959-1969. doi: 10.1001/jama.2012.3507.

		Goldenberg JZ, Ma SSY, Saxton JD, et al. Probiotics for the prevention of 

-associated diarrhea in adults and children. 

2013;5(CD006095). doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006095.pub3.

		Hungin AP, Mulligan C, Pot B, et al; European Society for Primary Care Gastroenterology. Systematic review: probiotics in the management of lower gastrointestinal symptoms in clinical practice—an evidence-based international guide. 

. 2013;38(8):864-886. doi: 10.1111/apt.12460.

		Moayyedi P, Ford AC, Talley NJ, et al. The efficacy of probiotics in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome: a systematic review. 

 2010;59(3):325-332. doi: 10.1136/gut.2008.167270.

		Hoveyda N, Heneghan C, Mahtani KR, Perera R, Roberts N, Glasziou P. A systematic review and meta-analysis: probiotics in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. 

. 2009;9:15. doi: 10.1186/1471-230X-9-15.

		Kristensen NB, Bryrup T, Allin KH, Nielsen T, Hansen TH, Pedersen O. Alterations in fecal microbiota composition by probiotic supplementation in healthy adults: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. 

 2016;8(1):52. doi: 10.1186/s13073-016-0300-5.

Although some bacteria are harmful, and killing those pathogens is a good thing when you're sick, most bacteria are good.

Probiotics: Much Remains to Be Learned

Gynecologic cancer is any cancer that starts in the female reproductive organs. The 5 main gynecologic cancers are cervical, ovarian, uterine, vaginal, and vulvar.

Symptoms of these cancers may be difficult to recognize and not register as something to see a health care provider (HCP) about (Table). The symptoms are common and often vague. Many women do not realize anything is wrong, or they mistake the symptoms for other, less serious conditions. That is why it is important to know what is normal for you.

. Abnormal bleeding is a symptom of almost all gynecologic cancers. See an HCP for any vaginal bleeding that is not normal for you, including:		

				Heavier or longer-than-normal menstrual flow

				Spotting anytime in the menstrual cycle

. Sometimes infections are to blame for vaginal discharge that is bloody, heavy, and foul smelling. Sometimes, however, this kind of discharge can also mean cervical, ovarian, uterine, or vaginal cancer.

Frequent urination and other urinary disturbances

. Because the female reproductive system is near the bladder and the urethra, tumors or swelling can cause symptoms similar to urinary tract infections—burning or pain with urination, urgency, frequent urination, difficulty urinating, and bladder spasms. Although these symptoms could mean other things, such as overactive bladder, you should promptly report these symptoms to your HCP.

. Rapid weight loss of more than 10 pounds that is not related to dieting or exercise could mean a number of things, including some form of cancer. Make an appointment with your HCP.

Constant feeling of fullness or appetite loss

. If you have difficulty eating or a constant feeling of fullness, please visit your gynecologist. These could be early signs of ovarian cancer. Ongoing pain or pressure in the abdomen. Do not ignore continual abdominal pain, pressure, or discomfort. These can be signs of ovarian or endometrial cancer.

. It is common for women to have some bloating during their period or after eating and drinking. But if bloating or swelling persists for more than 2 weeks after your cycle is over, see your HCP about it because these problems can be signs of ovarian cancer.

. Ordinarily, if you are feeling tired or fatigued, a little rest is all you need to recover. However, tiredness that prevents you from working or doing your normal activities could point to ovarian cancer. Do not dismiss constant fatigue.

. Ongoing digestive problems such as gas, nausea, indigestion, diarrhea, or constipation could be signs of a gynecologic cancer. Tumors or swelling can put pressure on the digestive system, which can cause these symptoms. Although there can be many reasons for these symptoms, it is best to report any change in bowel habits or the above symptoms if they last more than 2 to 3 weeks.

. Lumps, bumps, sores, thickening, and areas of color change should be reported to your HCP. In addition, if you have vulvar or vaginal itching, burning, or bleeding, or unusual discharge, get it checked out, as these can also be signs of cancer or precancerous changes.

. If you have leg swelling—particularly if one leg appears to be swollen, or feels larger than the other&mdash;and you feel pain and have vaginal discharge, this can be a sign of cervical cancer or ovarian cancer.

It is best to try to detect gynecologic cancers early, but, unfortunately, most of the symptoms are late symptoms. If something feels out of the ordinary or lingers, see your HCP. Remember that the above symptoms may not be caused by cancer, but the only way to be sure is to see your HCP.

Gynecologic cancers. CDC website. cdc.gov/cancer/gynecologic/index.htm. Accessed April 25, 2016.

Gynecologic cancer symptoms diary. CDC website. cdc.gov/cancer/knowledge/pdf/cdc_gyn_symptomsdiary.pdf. Accessed April 28, 2016.

Cervical cancer. Mayo Clinic website. mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cervical-cancer/basics/symptoms/con-20030522. Accessed April 28, 2016.

Ovarian cancer: take symptoms seriously. WebMD website. webmd.com/ovarian-cancer/news/20040608/ovarian-cancer-take-symptoms-seriously. Accessed April 28, 2016.

Ovarian cancer fact sheet. Womenshealth.gov website. womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/ovarian-cancer.html. Accessed April 25, 2016.

11 symptoms women shouldn’t ignore. RxWiki website. rxwiki.com/feature-article/gynecological-cancer-symptoms-can-be-easy-miss. Accessed April 25, 2016.

Gynecologic cancer is any cancer that starts in the female reproductive organs.

Gynecologic Cancers: What to Look for

Every time you blink, the front surface of your eye, known as the cornea, is lubricated with tears. To help keep your eyes comfortable and your vision optimal, a thin tear film—which consists of a mucus layer, a watery layer, and a lipid (or fat) layer&mdash;coats your eyes.

Dry eye is a common disorder that occurs when the eye does not produce enough tears, when tears evaporate too quickly, or if there is an abnormality in the production of mucus or lipids normally found in the tear layer. Dry eye is more common in older adults, but can occur at any age.

Without tears to lubricate the eye, you may experience pain, redness, stinging or burning, a feeling of sand or grit in the eye, discharge, blurred vision, excess watering, and discomfort with contact use. Dry eye can make it more difficult to perform some activities, such as using a computer or reading for an extended period of time, and it can decrease tolerance for dry environments, such as the air inside an airplane.

In most cases, dry eye can be managed successfully, usually resulting in noticeably greater eye comfort and fewer dry eye symptoms. For ways to prevent dry eye, see the Table.

Dry eyes can be caused by ordinary things that increase tear evaporation, such as looking at a computer screen too long; being outside in windy, dry conditions; or just being tired. Cigarette smoke may also cause dry eyes. Other common causes of dry eye include:

		Aging. Tear production tends to decline with age. Dry eyes are common in individuals older than 50 years.

		Gender. A deficiency of tears is more common in women, especially with hormonal changes caused by pregnancy, the use of birth control pills, or menopause.

		The use of cold or allergy medicines, antidepressants, and drugs for high blood pressure; acne; birth control; and Parkinson’s disease.

		An eye injury or other problem with your eyes or eyelids.

		Sjögren’s syndrome, which includes dry eyes, mouth, and mucus membranes, and often rheumatoid arthritis or another joint disorder.

		Inflammation that causes tear gland damage.

If you have dry eyes, you may experience a dry, gritty, scratchy, or filmy feeling; burning or itching; redness of the eyes; blurred vision; foreign body sensation; and light sensitivity. You may also have strained or tired eyes after reading, even for short periods of time. If you wear contacts, they will likely feel uncomfortable. Having dry eyes for a while can lead to tiny abrasions on the surface of your eyes.

You may also notice episodes of excessive tearing followed by very dry eye periods. This is because the eyes produce a large amount of tears at once to try to get moist and comfortable again. Unfortunately, because tear ducts can only handle so many tears at any one time, the excess tears pour down the cheeks. The whole process may repeat itself, too.

Elderly individuals frequently experience dryness of the eyes more often. However, dry eye can occur at any age. Nearly 5 million Americans 50 years and older are estimated to have dry eye. Of these, more than 3 million are women and more than 1.5 million are men. Tens of millions more have less severe symptoms. Dry eye is more common after menopause. In addition, women who experience menopause prematurely are more likely to have eye surface damage from dry eye.

During a comprehensive eye exam, the ophthalmologist will most likely be able to diagnose dry eye based on your symptoms, general health problems, medications, and environmental factors that may be contributing to the dry eye problem. As part of the eye examination, the following tests may be performed:

		Measuring the volume of your tears. Your health care provider (HCP) may measure your tear production using the Schirmer test. In this test, your HCP will place the end of a special paper strip inside the lower eyelid of each eye. After 5 minutes, your HCP measures the amount of strip soaked by your tears.

		Determining the quality of your tears. Other tests use special dyes in eyedrops to determine the surface condition of your eyes. Your HCP looks for staining patterns on the corneas and measures how long it takes before your tears evaporate.

Depending on the causes of dry eye, your HCP may use various approaches to relieve the symptoms.

For occasional or mild dry eye symptoms, OTC eyedrops (artificial tears) used regularly may provide relief. Preservative-free artificial tears are preferred, as they cause less irritation. Wearing glasses or sunglasses that fit close to the face (wraparound shades) or that have side shields can help slow tear evaporation from the eye surfaces. An indoor air cleaner to filter dust and other particles can help prevent dry eyes, as can a humidifier by adding moisture to the air, avoiding dry conditions, and allowing your eyes to rest when performing activities that require you to use your eyes for long periods of time. Instill lubricating eyedrops before performing such tasks.

In some cases, treating an underlying health issue can help clear up the signs and symptoms of dry eyes. Underlying causes of dry eye, such as Sjögren’s syndrome or lacrimal and meibomian gland dysfunction, can be treated and, in turn, relieve dry eyes. If a medication is causing your dry eyes, your HCP may recommend a different medication that does not cause that adverse effect.

Prescription medications used to treat dry eyes include:

		Cyclosporine. This anti-inflammatory medication is the only prescription drug available to treat dry eye. It decreases corneal damage, increases basic tear production, and reduces symptoms of dry eye. It may take 3 to 6 months of twice-daily dosages for the medication to work. In cases of severe dry eye, short-term use of corticosteroid eyedrops that decrease inflammation is required.

		An artificial tear insert such as Lacrisert may be an option for individuals with moderate to severe dry eye symptoms. Tear inserts are inserted between the lower eyelid and the eyeball, and the cellulose within the insert acts to stabilize and thicken the film of tears over the eyes.

Procedures that may be used to treat dry eyes include:

		Partially or completely closing the tear ducts

		Facts about dry eye. National Eye Institute website. nei.nih.gov/health/dryeye/dryeye. Accessed March 24, 2016.

		Dry eyes. Medline Plus website. nlm.nih .gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003087.htm. Accessed March 24, 2016.

		Dry eyes. Mayo Clinic website. mayoclinic .org/diseases-conditions/dry-eyes/basics/definition/ con-20024129. Accessed March 24, 2016.

		Dry eye. American Optometric Association website. aoa.org/patients-and-public/eye-andvision- problems/glossary-of-eye-and-visionconditions/ dry-eye?sso=y. Accessed March 24, 2016.

Dry eye is a common disorder that occurs when the eye does not produce enough tears, when tears evaporate too quickly, or if there is an abnormality in the production of mucus or lipids normally found in the tear layer. 

Educated Patient